Water Access and Usage Survey

1. WASH+: Water Infrastructure Approach

Under WASH+, DMDO provides communities with improved access to safe water through investments in water access (such as drilling boreholes), solar-powered pumping systems, piped distribution networks, public tapstands and prepaid smart meter systems.

2. Survey Context

In February 2025, a midline survey was conducted across 9 villages, reaching nearly 4,000 people. The survey collected basic data on household water sources, water availability, and water handling practices. This survey was designed primarily to report on conditions, rather than to interrogate underlying behaviours or barriers.

3. Key Results and Interpretation

There are encouraging signs:

• Availability of Water: 78.4% of households reported that water from their main source is always available.

However, important behavioural concerns are emerging:

• Primary Sources: 16.9% of households rely on rainwater harvesting and 10.2% continue to depend on surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds). This indicates that despite improved public infrastructure, many households still prefer familiar patterns of water sourcing.

• Low Demand: we hoped for consumption of around 10 litres per person per day but the prepaid metre data show that current consumption is, in some cases, far below this.

• Seasonal Rainwater Use: Heavy reliance on rainwater reflects seasonal behaviour patterns. Even when public tapstands are available, households may revert to using rainwater, especially during the rainy season. Sonak prepaid meter data supports this conclusion (at the time of writing, Sonak combines the data by water system rather than by village):

  • After steady growth in prepaid water usage from April 2024, usage dropped sharply in November, coinciding with the rains.

  • Mandwanga and Lindwandwali reached 9 litres per person per day at peak prepaid water use, showing the system’s potential.

  • Nyundo 1 and Nambahu reached only 5 litres per person per day, likely affected by limited smartcard seller access.

4. Overall Message

The WASH+ programme has successfully delivered improved water infrastructure to participating communities.

However, seasonal behaviours and habitual reliance on traditional sources — such as rainwater and surface water — continue to challenge full adoption of the new systems.

The results highlight that providing infrastructure alone is not sufficient: Understanding and shifting household behaviours is essential for achieving lasting improvements in safe water access.

5. Emerging Hypotheses

Several hypotheses are emerging from the midline survey and Sonak data:

• Rainwater Preference: Households prefer free rainwater when available, even when safe public tap water is accessible.

• Convenience and Access Issues: Limited access to smartcard sellers in some areas may reduce usage of prepaid systems.

• Seasonal Patterns: Water source choices shift dramatically with the seasons, reducing reliance on public infrastructure during the rains.

• Behavioural Habits: Longstanding practices around rainwater and surface water use remain strong and resilient to change.

6. Next Steps: Deepening Understanding through the WASH+ Behavioural Survey

To address these challenges, DMDO is undertaking a detailed WASH+ Behavioural Survey to:

• Understand seasonal decision-making around water source use;

• Explore trust and habits influencing water choices; and

• Identify practical barriers (such as access to prepaid credit).

Findings from the behavioural survey will shape future programme adjustments — ensuring that improved infrastructure is matched by stronger, more sustainable behaviour change.

7. Conclusion

The WASH+ water infrastructure programme is delivering real improvements in reliability and access. However, behavioural patterns — particularly around seasonal rainwater use and traditional sources — must be addressed if the full benefits of these investments are to be realised.

The WASH+ Behavioural Survey will provide the insights needed to close this critical gap.